Where does transcription take place?

The genetic code is located in the nucleus of a cell in material known as chromatin. This material condenses to form chromosomes which are made of DNA. 

DNA contains the organism's genome and must be faithfully copied in order for cells to be able to produce proteins at organelles known as ribosomes in the cytoplasm.  DNA does NOT leave the nucleus of the cell. 

In a process known as transcription, which occurs in the cell's nucleus, another nucleic acid known as messenger RNA or mRNA can copy the DNA blueprint. It can make a  strand complementary to either side of the DNA double helix.  Once transcription is completed, the messenger RNA transcript can be taken to a ribosome where translation resulting in protein synthesis occurs.

When mRNA transcribes DNA, it follows the rules of base pairing that apply to DNA with one exception- messenger RNA lacks the base thymine and so the base uracil is substituted. The rules are --if DNA has the base adenine (A), the mRNA complement would be uracil (U). If DNA has the base thymine ( T), mRNA has the complement adenine ( A). If the DNA has the base cytosine (C), the mRNA complement is guanine ( G) and finally, if the DNA has the base guanine (G), the mRNA has the complement cytosine (C).

If the DNA code reads--                         TAC GGA then the mRNA would form the complementary strand which reads:   AUG CCU 

I have placed the mRNA transcript below the DNA blueprint to see how the rules of base --pairing apply in transcription. 

To conclude, transcription is when the DNA genetic code is copied into messenger RNA. This process occurs in the cell's nucleus.

What is this book about?

The Red Scarf Girl is author Ji-li Jiang's memoir of her experiences during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was a socio-political movement which took place from 1966 to 1976. Communist leader Mao Zedong wanted to destroy the Four Olds (old customs, culture, habits, and ideas) and create a new, purely communist China. The Red Guard was made up of young people who supported this cultural shift and served as a paramilitary alliance for Chairman Mao. They were a revolutionary youth group and sought to destroy manifestations of the Four Olds. Their actions included burning old books, destroying temples and religious sites, and ransacking museums. They also physically attacked people suspected of capitalist sentiments. 

The book begins around the same time that the Cultural Revolution has begun, and many young people are feeling the excitement and opportunity of being chosen to serve their leader. Ji-li wants to audition for the Central Liberation Army Arts Academy and is even nominated to join the Red Guard, but her family has a political history which presents challenges. Because her grandfather is a landlord, and her father has been called a Rightist, her family is criticized as part of the Four Olds. Their home is raided for evidence of the Four Olds and a bourgoisie lifestyle. Ji-li feels shame among her peers because of her family's "black" political history. Eventually Ji-li is sent to work in fields, and is urged to criticize her father for being a Rightist. Instead, she allies with her father and takes care of him rather than betray him. This book reveals the intense personal struggles young people experienced at the time of the Cultural Revolution and that many were torn between familial ties and the prospect of honor in serving a New China.

In the title of the poem 'Do not go gentle into that good night', is 'gentle' an adjective referring to the poet's father or an adverb referring...

Your second suggestion is correct; the word "gentle" is used here as an adverb. Thought normally one would use the word "gently," Thomas is using the word in a poetic context. But it begs the question, why did he use the word "gentle" and not "gently" as one would expect? I have loved this poem for a long time and always appreciated the use of the word "gentle" and was never bothered by its problematic grammar, if indeed there is even a problem!

But I did some research online and found a fascinating discussion where someone asks if this indeed grammatically correct. The response is intelligent and thorough and also offers information about the poem. In part, the responder says:

"At first glance, Thomas could have chosen to phrase his exhortation “Do not go gently into that good night,” and it would apparently have meant much the same as “Do not go gentle into that good night”. 

However, the situation that gave rise to the poem indicates to me that Thomas preferred ‘gentle’ to ‘gently’ because he wanted to underscore his desire for his father’s lack of gentleness to be an existential state in the face of approaching death – perhaps with the underlying hope that by fighting against oncoming death, his father might actually prolong his life; his father was not actually on his deathbed at the time the poem was composed. 

‘Gentle’ as it is used here is therefore a synonym for ‘meek’ or ‘submissive’."

I like this very much: the clarification that "gentle" is a synonym for "meek" or "submissive" as it emphasizes Thomas' wishes for his father to prepare himself for death, and to not give into it (or the pain or indignity that might come with it), and to fight to stay alive. It is often said that one's emotional and psychological state have a great deal to do with one's ability to stay heathy. Of course, there are exceptions, as when severe illness or accidents cause a sudden death. But Thomas is here contemplating not just his father's attitude towards aging and death, but very likely his own. He is recommending approaching death with the same passion and optimism with which one approaches life.

What is incongruous about Mr. Martin's boasts to Mrs. Barrows?

The whole plot of "The Catbird Seat" hinges on the incongruity between Mr. Martin's character and his boasts to Mrs. Barrows when he comes to her apartment. He is in reality a very conservative, quiet, thoughtful, studious, mild-mannered man whose job as head of a filing department seems suitable to his inhibited personality. Ulgine Barrows is astonished by his behavior. He asks for a Scotch-and-soda and lights a cigarette.

"Well," she said, handing him his drink, "this is perfectly marvelous. You with a drink and a cigarette."

Mr. Martin had come there with the intention of murdering the woman, but he realizes the incongruity himself and decides to exaggerate it. 

"Here's nuts to that old windbag, Fitweiler," he said, and gulped again.

He tells her he takes heroin and that he will be "coked to the gills" when he bumps the old buzzard off. Ironically, bizarre behavior brings out the conservative side of Ulgine Barrows' character. She is amazed, indignant, defensive of their employer. She soon asks Martin to leave.

"Not a word about this," he said, and laid an index finger against his lips.

As expected, Mrs. Barrows comes charging into the office the next morning and has a long talk with Mr. Fitweiler. She doesn't realize that she has been tricked by Mr. Martin's performance and that he is in the catbird seat. Mrs. Barrows only reinforces Mr. Fitweiler's impression that she has lost her mind when she becomes hysterical. She brings about her own downfall when she glares at her employer and asks: 

"Can't you see how he has tricked us, you old fool? Can't you see his little game?"

How does Hazel and Augustus's relationship differ from that of other teens? How is it the same?

Hazel and Augustus's relationship differs from that of other teens because of their cancer and consequent life experiences. Both continue to face terminal illness so they have grown up quickly. They have tackled serious questions about mortality and the meaning of life in ways most teens never need to. They also have learned to make every moment special because they don't have that many of them compared to other teens.

But like other teens, they each begin by wondering if the other is truly attracted. The question of "Does he/she like me?" is as true for them as it is for any teen couple. They also share a quirky sense of humor.

Like other teens, they physically desire each other. But they must overcome physical restraints unique to their situation: Hazel's necessary oxygen tank and Augustus's amputated leg. But their ability to work through these difficulties shows their deep commitment and love for each other.

What is the probability of 45 children in a class having their birthday on the same day of the week?

Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event occurs. The problem requires you to determine what the probability is of 45 children being born on the same day of the week.

There are 7 days in a week. In a regular year there are 365 days which is equivalent to 52 whole weeks and one odd day. In a leap year there are 52 complete weeks and 2 odd days. The problem does not provide any information on whether the children are born in the same year, or if that is the case, which year they were born in. As a result, to determine the required probability we need to assume that each day of the year has an equal chance of being one of the seven days of the week, though this is not the case in reality.

Having assumed that each day has a probability of being a particular day of the week of 1/7, the probability of each of the 45 students having their birthdays on any particular day of the week is (1/7)^45. But as there are 7 days in a week, the probability that the children have their birthdays on the same day of the week is 7*(1/7)^45 = 1/7^44.

The required probability that 45 children have their birthdays on the same day of the week is approximately 1/7^44.

I'm writing a research paper in history which is meant to be between 3000 and 4000 words. So I'm going to need a topic that I can not only sustain...

I have a few ideas for you that might help you narrow your topic to a suitable range and inquiry. As I can see you realize, both of your topics are enormous and virtually unmanageable without narrowing your focus.

The first idea that came to mind was an inquiry into why it took so very long for the United States to enter World War II. As I'm sure you know, we did not enter the war until we were attacked by the Japanese at Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941. You might want to ask what took us so long.  What were the politics that kept us out of the war?  And I assure you, there were politics.  So that is one inquiry.

Another that struck me is an inquiry into how the "peace" after World War I created the circumstances that led to World War II.  There are many reputable and credible historians who maintain that this is the case, and your research on this issue, I promise you, would be very interesting.  You may or may not think this is the case, but you can support your opinion with good research. 

As for the Cold War, a similar idea occurred to me, which is to wonder how the peace of World War II led to the Cold War. I think you will be able to find relationships between the two in your research, and this, too, is an interesting question.

Finally, the relationship of Russia with the rest of the world is likely the consequence of the Cold War.  Its paranoia, its defensiveness, its very government might all be the results of its Cold War with the United States and other nations.  This is a question you can answer through good research.

You will notice that these ideas focus on some relationship from one period or event to the next.  In my opinion, this is the strength of history, allowing us to see these relationships and learn from them. Nothing in history happens in a vacuum, and if you can tease out these relationships, you will be well on your way to doing history as it is meant to be done.